Boredom is defined as a state of low arousal and dissatisfaction resulting from perceived monotony and repetition (Mikulas and Vodanovich, 1993). COVID-19 has introduced various stresses, including the risk of illness and fears about survival. Its highly contagious nature sets it apart from other diseases, leading to behavioral restrictions not only for patients and suspected cases but also for the general population. Countries have implemented various policies to prevent COVID-19’s spread, such as social distancing and limiting social gatherings. While these policies may effectively contain the disease, they can also cause stress (Boylan et al., 2021). Initially, people complied with these policies due to high anxiety about the disease (Lima et al., 2020). However, as the pandemic has dragged on, boredom has become prevalent. Recent studies indicate that boredom is a common outcome of the COVID-19 situation (Boylan et al., 2021; Presti et al., 2020). For instance, isolation often leads to boredom as the primary stressor (Presti et al., 2020), and boredom significantly reduces compliance with policies (Boylan et al., 2021). Boylan et al. (2021) suggest that government-imposed restrictions induce boredom, which in turn leads to non-compliant behavior. Thus, boredom is a key factor in predicting behavior during the ongoing pandemic, yet research on this in tourism literature is limited.

Previous tourism studies have often treated traveling as a type of shopping, viewing destinations as products and travelers as potential buyers. Consequently, these studies mainly focus on functional aspects of the travel purchasing process, such as travel motivation (Jang and Wu, 2006; Kim and Eves, 2012), travel agency selection (Talwar et al., 2020), and the travel quality and customer satisfaction (Sung and Noh, 2023). However, with the growing recognition of travelers’ emotional needs, recent studies have started to explore travel as a means of stress relief (Chen et al., 2016; Jordan et al., 2019). For example, Chen et al. (2016) examined tourism experiences as stress relievers, showing how travel alleviates work stress and enhances life satisfaction post-travel. Jordan et al. (2019) also found that travel significantly improves individuals' emotions and reduces stress. Since one of the major motivations for travel is to escape routine and stressful environments, travel plays an essential role in stress relief (Sonnentag and Fritz, 2007).

However, there is a lack of research on the relationship between stress and travel behavior. The pandemic has caused significant stress among people, and for some, traveling can mitigate this stress. Therefore, in this paper, we consider COVID-19-induced boredom as a vital variable to investigate the relationship between boredom and travel motivation, constraints, and intentions.

Stressful situations create a relationship between an individual and their challenging environment. In response to stress, people often seek various methods to manage it (Liang et al., 2019). Stress influences both perceptions and behaviors. For example, Maier and Wilken (2014) suggest that when people are under stress, their valuation of products or services diminishes compared to their stress-free state. Similarly, Zhang et al. (2020) found that the intensity of negative emotional responses in individuals varies with the perceived severity of the COVID-19 threat, particularly when they encounter price disparities in services.

Stress can also impact motivation. Vallerand (1997) describes a four-step process through which motivation influences behavior: (1) environmental factors, (2) psychological mediators, (3) motivation, and (4) consequence. Applying this framework to the current context, it can be proposed that (1) various environmental changes due to COVID-19, such as restrictions on social gatherings and self-isolation, (2) induce stress in individuals, (3) which then affects their travel motivation, (4) ultimately influencing their post-COVID-19 travel intentions. Prior studies have also verified the negative impact of emotions like anxiety and worry on travel motivation (Jang et al., 2009).

Therefore, it can be hypothesized that the level of boredom, as a manifestation of COVID-19-induced negative stress, may vary among individuals, potentially influencing their travel motivation and subsequent behavior. Based on this understanding, we propose the following hypothesis:

H1: COVID-19 boredom affects travel motivation.

Travel motivation is defined as the psychological and biological needs and desires that activate, direct, and integrate an individual’s actions and activities in the context of travel (Khan et al., 2019; Lu et al., 2016; Yoon and Uysal, 2005). It has been recognized as a crucial driver influencing people's behaviors in travel, impacting various aspects such as attitudes towards destinations (Hsu et al., 2010), destination choices (Jang and Cai, 2002), destination loyalty (Yoon and Uysal, 2005), and travel intentions (Li and Cai, 2012). Notably, there is a strong correlation between travel motivation and travel intentions (Hsu et al., 2010; Li and Cai, 2012; Lu et al., 2016).

The “push–pull model” is a well-known framework in travel research that categorizes motivation into two types: ‘push’ factors that drive an individual to travel and ‘pull’ factors that attract individuals to specific leisure services or destinations (Crompton, 1979; Gnoth, 1997; Goossens, 2000; Yoon and Uysal, 2005). Push motivation encompasses the internal desires that compel people to travel, while pull motivation pertains to the attributes of leisure activities or destinations that are appealing. Researchers have identified various factors as push and pull motivations. For instance, Goossens (2000) views travel motivation from an emotional standpoint, considering push factors as emotional needs and pull factors as emotional benefits. A study on British outbound tourists identified knowledge, escape, and socializing as significant push factors, while hygiene, cleanliness, safety, and price were notable pull factors (Jang and Cai, 2002).

Studies focusing on personal desires often emphasize push factors in travel motivation. For example, Hsu et al. (2010) used factors like knowledge, relaxation, novelty, and shopping to explore the relationship between expectations, motivation, and attitudes. Li and Cai (2012) investigated Chinese group tourists’ travel motives using novelty, prestige, self-development, exciting experiences, and escape as key motivation variables. In researching the outbound travel intentions of Chinese senior citizens, Lu et al. (2016) employed knowledge enhancement, sensation seeking, self-fulfillment, socializing, pleasure-seeking, and escape as travel motivation variables. In line with these studies, we adopt six factors—novelty, prestige, self-development, exciting experiences, escape, and relationships—as travel motivation variables in this study.

We aim to explore how COVID-19-induced boredom influences people’s travel motives and intentions. Stressful situations during the pandemic can alter behaviors; for example, shopping or engaging in activities to alleviate stress might become motivators for travel due to COVID-19 boredom. Therefore, we propose the following hypothesis:

H2. Travel motivation has a positive effect on post-pandemic travel intention.

Travel constraints refer to a variety of factors that inhibit individuals from traveling (Bonn et al., 2016; Hung and Petrick, 2012; Jian et al., 2021; Khan et al., 2019). Initially, studies primarily focused on financial and time constraints as barriers to travel (Crompton, 1979). However, recent research has identified a broader range of constraints, including limited opportunities, transportation issues, overcrowding, lack of knowledge, ability, safety concerns, and governmental regulations (Hung and Petrick, 2012; Khan et al., 2019). These constraints are commonly categorized into three dimensions: structural, intrapersonal, and interpersonal (Crawford et al., 1991).

Structural constraints are external factors that impact an individual’s ability to travel, such as financial limitations, transportation issues, and lack of knowledge. In the context of the ongoing pandemic, government-imposed travel restrictions and self-isolation requirements have also become significant structural constraints (Jian et al., 2021; Petersen et al., 2020). Intrapersonal constraints relate to personal safety and health concerns, particularly in this study, the fear of COVID-19 exposure during travel. Interpersonal constraints stem from the concerns of an individual’s relatives and friends, such as their opinions or travel restrictions impacting group travel plans.

Several studies have shown that travel constraints negatively affect travel intentions (An et al., 2010; Bonn et al., 2016; Suhud and Allan, 2019). For instance, Suhud and Allan (2019) discovered that travel constraints diminished behavioral intentions among tourists visiting volcano sites in Indonesia. Similarly, constraints negatively influenced the intention to visit wine regions (Bonn et al., 2016). Nonetheless, psychological defense theory suggests that individuals often develop thoughts and feelings that counterbalance negative emotions (APA, 2013). For example, when leisure and recreational activities are unavailable due to factors like illness or pregnancy, people frequently reminisce about past recreational experiences to alleviate current stress and dissatisfaction (Jian et al., 2021). Similarly, when travel is restricted due to COVID-19, individuals may find solace in recalling past travel experiences and aspire to travel once the pandemic eases. Thus, it can be inferred that the greater the COVID-19-related constraints, the stronger the intention to travel post-pandemic. Based on this understanding, we propose the following hypothesis:

H3: Travel constraints have a positive effect on post-pandemic travel intention.

Previous research on willingness to pay (WTP) more has primarily focused on how much extra customers are willing to spend for products or services that offer added functionality. For instance, Ioana-Daniela et al. (2018) examined why customers would choose a luxury cruise costing $350 per day and discovered that customers’ fantasies significantly influenced their willingness to pay more. Rahman and Reynolds (2016) argued that environmentally conscious customers are more inclined to stay in a green hotel and are willing to pay a premium for it. Similarly, Sánchez-Cañizares et al. (2020) explored the willingness to pay more for enhanced safety measures during travel amid the ongoing pandemic.

However, the decision to pay extra is not only influenced by additional functionalities but also by the emotional state of the consumer. This behavior has been extensively studied in the context of shopping. Shopping encompasses both the utilitarian aspect of satisfying a customer's needs through purchase and the hedonic aspect of enjoyment and pleasure (Arnold and Reynolds, 2003; Hirschman, 1984). Hirschman (1984) proposes that shopping experiences provide both cognitive (utilitarian) and emotional (hedonic) benefits, stimulating people’s thoughts and senses. Notably, shopping is also recognized as a method for coping with stress (Arnold and Reynolds, 2003; Hama, 2001), where individuals shop to alleviate stress, diminish negative feelings, and indulge themselves. Moreover, the hedonic value significantly influences impulse buying behavior on airplanes (Ku and Chen, 2020). Despite the close relationship between WTP more and individual emotions, research in this area remains limited.

Travel inherently involves purchasing behavior. Travelers book hotels and restaurants, buy tickets for tourist attractions, and purchase souvenirs for friends and family. During this process, an individual’s stress level can influence their purchasing decisions. In light of this, we propose the following hypothesis:

H4: The WTP more intention differs according to COVID-19 boredom levels.

Many studies reveal the relationship between WTP more and purchase intention. Using the theory of planned behavior, Salem and Salem (2018) find that customers’ purchase intention of luxury fashion goods significantly affects the WTP more in the fashion industry. In tourism literature, Hultman et al. (2015) also employ the planned behavior theory as a framework to explore the WTP more for ecotourism and confirm that ecotourism intention is a strong antecedent to WTP more. Based on these studies, we propose the following hypothesis.

H5: Post-pandemic travel intention has a positive effect on the WTP more intention.

In this study, we aim to answer the following research questions: (1) How does COVID-19 boredom affect travel motivation and post-pandemic travel intention? (2) How do travel motivation and travel constraint affect post-pandemic travel intention? (3) Is there a significant relationship between COVID-19 boredom and the WTP more? As we consider customer perceptions, the survey method is selected to gather data and test the hypotheses.

The survey questionnaire is structured into two primary sections. The first section aims to gather demographic information from the respondents, including gender, age, property ownership, marital status, and educational background. The second section consists of 32 items related to travel, derived from previous research. These items encompass areas such as travel motivation, travel constraints, travel intent, and willingness to pay (WTP) more. Additionally, four items specifically addressing COVID-19-induced boredom, based on existing research, are included. The survey seeks to assess respondents’ perceived levels of COVID-19 boredom, travel motivation, constraints, post-pandemic travel intention, and willingness to pay more.

A hypothetical scenario is presented in which COVID-19 has subsided, rather than completely ended. This approach is chosen for two main reasons. First, predicting the complete eradication of COVID-19 is challenging due to its high contagiousness. Second, it is anticipated that people might resume travel activities when they perceive a certain level of safety, even if COVID-19 has not been entirely overcome. This scenario serves as the basis for assessing respondents' intentions to spend more compared to their pre-COVID-19 travel experiences, examining whether people intend to manage their stress through additional consumption during travel.

Table 1 in the study details all the variables and survey items used. Travel motivation variables—novelty, prestige, self-development, activity, and relaxation—are adopted from Li and Cai (2012), while the three travel constraint variables—structural, interpersonal, and intrapersonal—are from Jian et al. (2021). The concept of post-pandemic travel intention is based on Nguyen and Coca-Stefaniak (2020), and the measurement of COVID-19 boredom is derived from Struk et al. (2017). Each item is rated using a five-point Likert scale, ranging from ‘strongly disagree’ (1) to ‘strongly agree’ (5). Additionally, the model incorporating all these variables is depicted in Fig.1.

We hired a survey research company to reduce bias that can occur during the respondent selection process. The target population's age was over 20 years with travel experience before the outbreak of COVID-19. All surveys were conducted online as the pandemic is not yet over. A total of 976 individuals were surveyed between February and March 2021 and 575 responded. As all questions were mandatory, no value was missing. Samples with insincere responses were eliminated from the final analysis. The collected data were analyzed using the SmartPLS 3.0 and Statistical Package for Social Science 26. Table 2 summarizes the demographic information of the respondents.

The appropriateness of the measurement model was confirmed based on reliability, convergent validity, and discriminant validity. Reliability was tested using the composite reliability (CR) value. Cronbach’s alpha was determined to verify the internal consistency of each construct. As summarized in Table 3, all CR values and Cronbach’s alphas exceeded 0.7, indicating no significant defect in internal consistency.

Convergent validity was verified based on two criteria: (1) all factor loadings of each item should exceed 0.7 and (2) the average variance extracted (AVE) from the constructs should exceed 0.5 (Fornell and Larcker, 1981). All factor loading and AVE values are greater than 0.730 and 0.637, respectively, satisfying the criteria.

Following the guidelines of Fornell and Larcker (1981), discriminant validity is verified if the square root of the AVE exceeds the correlation coefficient of the constitutional concepts. The discriminant validity values are summarized in Table 4. The square root values of the AVE, shown in bold, exceed the other correlation coefficient values; hence, discriminant validity is confirmed.

Next, we test the hypothesis of the proposed model. Complete bootstrapping with 1,000 subsamples was run for the significance testing. Of the total 14 hypotheses, five relationships were found to be significant. The proposed model explains 27.7% of the post-pandemic travel intention and 12.5% of the WTP more. The value of the standardized root mean residual was 0.058, which meets the criteria that this residual should be below 0.08.

The hypothesis test results are summarized in Table 5. First, the results demonstrate that COVID-19 boredom only affects relaxation motivation (=0.209, p<0.001). Therefore, H1e is supported. Second, only relaxation motivation was found to affect the post-pandemic travel intentions (=0.209, p<0.001). Thus, H2e is supported. Third, among the three constrain factors, structural constraints (=0.221, p<0.001) and intrapersonal constraints (=−0.151, p<0.01) have a positive impact on post-pandemic travel intention. Therefore, H3a and H3c are supported. Fourth, people’s travel intention positively impacts WTP more (=0.354, p<0.001).

Especially, the relationship from COVID-19 boredom → relaxation motivation → post-pandemic travel intention → WTP more was statistically significant (=0.027, p<0.01), confirming that boredom is a significant predictor of travel intention and WTP more. Additionally, structural constraints → post-pandemic travel intention → WTP more was also significant, thus, proving that the structural constraint because of the pandemic negatively affects travel intention. However, the travel motive variables used as key variables in other studies, novelty, prestige, activity, and self-development, all have no significant effect on post-pandemic travel intention. Intrapersonal constructs also have no significant effect on post-pandemic travel.

To explore whether willingness to pay (WTP) more is influenced by the level of COVID-19-induced boredom, we conducted an independent sample t-test. The initial analysis revealed that the majority of respondents experienced high levels of COVID-19 boredom, with a mean score of 3.528 and a standard deviation of 0.792. For the purposes of this analysis, we categorized COVID-19 boredom into two groups: a low boredom group (COVID-19 boredom scores ≤ 3) and a high boredom group (COVID-19 boredom scores > 3). The results, as depicted in Table 6, illustrate the outcome of the t-test comparing WTP more between these two boredom levels. It was found that the mean WTP more for the high boredom group was significantly greater than that of the low boredom group. This finding provides substantial support for Hypothesis 4 (H4), indicating a direct relationship between increased COVID-19 boredom and a higher willingness to pay more. The results of all hypothesis tests, including this significant finding, are comprehensively presented in Figure 2.

Our study offers practical implications for tourism practitioners and travel policymakers. First, travel managers should develop marketing and advertising strategies targeting customers with high levels of boredom. Our survey indicates that approximately 71.5% of respondents experience high boredom (mean = 3.528). Marketing managers and policymakers need to consider alleviating customer boredom as a critical factor. According to our findings, people are likely to seek relief from various stresses, including boredom, by traveling once COVID-19 subsides. The lower the stress levels, the more inclined people are to travel. Therefore, travel service providers should not only highlight the unique features of destinations but also create messages that resonate with the psychological needs of their target customers.

Second, practitioners should devise travel services with an aggressive strategy for additional payments, encouraging customers to spend more. In the post-pandemic era, our study found that travelers are more willing to spend extra due to increased stress. Travel demand is expected to surge after COVID-19 abates. However, intense competition is likely as many travel agencies vie for this opportunity. A strategic approach would be to offer affordable, basic travel packages with options for additional premium services. This strategy could provide a competitive edge in the post-pandemic tourism industry while aligning with customers’ willingness to pay more.

Third, it is necessary to distribute expected travel demand by developing diverse products. The stronger the regulations, the greater the anticipated surge in travel demand. Nonetheless, as the COVID-19 pandemic is not yet over, overcrowding could heighten infection risks and detract from the travel experience, particularly since such congestion does not align with the relaxation motivation. Therefore, travel managers should prioritize relaxation and refreshment by creating travel products oriented towards small groups. These should focus less on tours, activities, and shopping, and more on reducing crowdedness to ensure a pleasant travel experience.

This study presents a variety of strategies that the travel industry, which has been depressed due to COVID-19, can utilize moving forward. By accurately understanding the post-COVID needs of customers and providing related services, the travel industry can expect to increase overall revenue through customer satisfaction and leveraging customers’ willingness to make additional expenditures. This is anticipated to facilitate a swift recovery of the industry, which was devastated by the pandemic.

This study has several limitations. First, its geographic constraints to South Korea presents a significant limitation, particularly given the context of the low vaccination rates and strict social distancing measures in the country as of April 21, 2021. This specificity might not be entirely representative or applicable to other countries, especially those experiencing rapid vaccination progress and the easing of COVID-19 restrictions. The varying global response to the pandemic suggests that a similar model applied in different countries could yield diverse insights into behavioral changes in response to the pandemic, thus enabling more generable results.

Second, the study’s primary focus on COVID-19-induced boredom as a factor influencing people’s travel intentions may overlook other critical factors. Research by Matiza (2020) and Zheng et al. (2021) indicates that travel fear and perceived risks also significantly impact travel intentions. Therefore, a more comprehensive analysis that incorporates these additional variables could broaden understanding of the factors influencing travel intentions during the pandemic.

Finally, the study’s emphasis on post-pandemic travel intentions rather than actual travel behavior marks a crucial limitation. Theoretical models of travel intentions can differ significantly from actual travel behavior observed post-pandemic. In addition to these points, the study’s reliance on survey-based predictive research, focusing on customer perceptions at a specific point in time, limits its ability to account for the evolving nature of customer attitudes and behaviors. As the pandemic situation changes, re-evaluating customer perceptions and comparing them with previous data could provide a more nuanced understanding of how travel intentions and behaviors have been transformed by the COVID-19 experience.